Number of people living in urban and rural areas, annual growth rate by country
The year-on-year percentage change in Number of people living in urban and rural areas. Computed from consecutive annual observations; years either side of a gap are skipped rather than bridged.
Countries reporting
234
Highest
5.97 % change on previous year
Burundi
Lowest
-4.55 % change on previous year
Saint Martin (French Part)
Median
1.12 % change on previous year
Years covered
75
1951–2025
Data points
17,624
What the numbers show
Number of people living in urban and rural areas, annual growth rate is currently reported for 234 countries. The highest value is 5.97 % change on previous year in Burundi; the lowest is -4.55 % change on previous year in Saint Martin (French Part).
The median across all reporting countries is 1.12 % change on previous year, and the mean is 1.36 % change on previous year.
Over the past decade 64 countries rose and 170 fell. The largest increase was in Ukraine (up 1,280.7%), and the largest decrease in Czechia (down 6,085.0%).
Number of people living in urban and rural areas, annual growth rate: full country ranking
| # | Country | Latest | Year | 10-year change | Trend |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Burundi | 5.97 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 32.7% | rising |
| 2 | Chad | 5.91 % change on previous year | 2025 | up 31.9% | falling |
| 3 | Rwanda | 5.71 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 11.9% | volatile |
| 4 | Niger | 5.13 % change on previous year | 2025 | up 24.0% | falling |
| 5 | Mozambique | 5.07 % change on previous year | 2025 | up 36.5% | falling |
| 6 | Tanzania, United Republic of | 4.93 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 5.4% | volatile |
| 7 | Uganda | 4.91 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 24.0% | rising |
| 8 | Mali | 4.91 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 11.5% | falling |
| 9 | Ethiopia | 4.7 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 6.3% | rising |
| 10 | Solomon Islands | 4.54 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 37.7% | falling |
| 11 | Malawi | 4.53 % change on previous year | 2025 | up 40.1% | falling |
| 12 | Central African Republic | 4.43 % change on previous year | 2025 | up 325.1% | volatile |
| 13 | Somalia | 4.38 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 39.1% | falling |
| 14 | Burkina Faso | 4.35 % change on previous year | 2025 | up 9.3% | rising |
| 15 | Mauritania | 4.31 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 21.5% | volatile |
| 16 | Papua New Guinea | 4.23 % change on previous year | 2025 | up 25.2% | volatile |
| 17 | Angola | 4.22 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 15.2% | falling |
| 18 | Congo, Democratic Republic of the | 4.1 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 5.3% | rising |
| 19 | Oman | 4.08 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 20.3% | volatile |
| 20 | Benin | 4.02 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 10.2% | falling |
| 21 | Madagascar | 3.9 % change on previous year | 2025 | up 9.1% | falling |
| 22 | Syrian Arab Republic | 3.85 % change on previous year | 2025 | up 185.6% | volatile |
| 23 | Zambia | 3.82 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 7.8% | volatile |
| 24 | Afghanistan | 3.76 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 13.2% | volatile |
| 25 | Yemen | 3.57 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 25.5% | falling |
| 26 | Guinea | 3.53 % change on previous year | 2025 | up 10.1% | falling |
| 27 | Côte d'Ivoire | 3.53 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 9.1% | falling |
| 28 | South Sudan | 3.52 % change on previous year | 2025 | up 1,210.8% | volatile |
| 29 | Togo | 3.52 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 4.3% | falling |
| 30 | Zimbabwe | 3.44 % change on previous year | 2025 | up 34.0% | falling |
| 31 | Lesotho | 3.4 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 40.0% | volatile |
| 32 | Nigeria | 3.38 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 17.1% | falling |
| 33 | Guinea-Bissau | 3.38 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 7.7% | volatile |
| 34 | Gambia | 3.35 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 13.8% | volatile |
| 35 | Sierra Leone | 3.33 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 3.9% | falling |
| 36 | Senegal | 3.31 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 28.7% | falling |
| 37 | Lao People's Democratic Republic | 3.27 % change on previous year | 2025 | up 12.8% | rising |
| 38 | Mayotte | 3.24 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 19.0% | volatile |
| 39 | Liberia | 3.11 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 1.3% | volatile |
| 40 | Comoros | 3.09 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 6.3% | volatile |
| 41 | Cameroon | 3.09 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 20.2% | falling |
| 42 | United Arab Emirates | 3.07 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 44.7% | volatile |
| 43 | Ukraine | 3.05 % change on previous year | 2025 | up 1,280.7% | volatile |
| 44 | Namibia | 3 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 29.8% | falling |
| 45 | Kenya | 2.97 % change on previous year | 2025 | up 43.9% | falling |
| 46 | Kiribati | 2.96 % change on previous year | 2025 | up 22.3% | falling |
| 47 | Bangladesh | 2.96 % change on previous year | 2025 | up 41.7% | volatile |
| 48 | Eswatini | 2.89 % change on previous year | 2025 | up 78.6% | volatile |
| 49 | Ghana | 2.83 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 17.1% | falling |
| 50 | Congo | 2.77 % change on previous year | 2025 | up 4.4% | falling |
| 51 | Equatorial Guinea | 2.74 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 70.3% | volatile |
| 52 | Bhutan | 2.7 % change on previous year | 2025 | up 3.7% | volatile |
| 53 | Sudan | 2.6 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 36.5% | volatile |
| 54 | Pakistan | 2.49 % change on previous year | 2025 | up 18.3% | falling |
| 55 | Honduras | 2.47 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 14.2% | rising |
| 56 | Sao Tome and Principe | 2.45 % change on previous year | 2025 | up 23.2% | volatile |
| 57 | Vanuatu | 2.42 % change on previous year | 2025 | up 5.8% | falling |
| 58 | Gabon | 2.38 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 35.7% | volatile |
| 59 | Botswana | 2.37 % change on previous year | 2025 | up 22.9% | volatile |
| 60 | Bahrain | 2.26 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 47.8% | volatile |
| 61 | Qatar | 2.25 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 76.2% | volatile |
| 62 | Seychelles | 2.24 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 20.8% | volatile |
| 63 | British Virgin Islands | 2.24 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 63.2% | volatile |
| 64 | Iraq | 2.2 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 29.8% | falling |
| 65 | Haiti | 2.2 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 22.2% | falling |
| 66 | Guatemala | 2.15 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 10.9% | falling |
| 67 | Bonaire Sint Eustatius and Saba | 2.14 % change on previous year | 2025 | up 55.5% | volatile |
| 68 | Algeria | 2.05 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 30.5% | volatile |
| 69 | Eritrea | 2.03 % change on previous year | 2025 | up 923.0% | volatile |
| 70 | Gibraltar | 2.03 % change on previous year | 2025 | up 75.0% | volatile |
| 71 | Palestine, State of | 2.02 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 22.4% | flat |
| 72 | Paraguay | 1.98 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 21.2% | falling |
| 73 | Saudi Arabia | 1.97 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 45.2% | falling |
| 74 | Uzbekistan | 1.94 % change on previous year | 2025 | up 50.6% | falling |
| 75 | Indonesia | 1.89 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 22.0% | falling |
| 76 | Cayman Islands | 1.86 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 24.4% | flat |
| 77 | Kuwait | 1.86 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 59.7% | volatile |
| 78 | Western Sahara | 1.85 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 37.0% | volatile |
| 79 | Bolivia, Plurinational State of | 1.82 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 11.7% | falling |
| 80 | Egypt | 1.81 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 6.3% | falling |
| 81 | Malaysia | 1.81 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 24.2% | falling |
| 82 | Tajikistan | 1.79 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 20.8% | volatile |
| 83 | India | 1.78 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 19.3% | falling |
| 84 | Cambodia | 1.76 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 81.8% | volatile |
| 85 | Kazakhstan | 1.73 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 31.4% | volatile |
| 86 | French Guiana | 1.72 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 4.7% | falling |
| 87 | Timor-Leste | 1.71 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 6.1% | volatile |
| 88 | Turkmenistan | 1.7 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 27.6% | falling |
| 89 | Faroe Islands | 1.68 % change on previous year | 2025 | up 15.3% | volatile |
| 90 | Nicaragua | 1.63 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 4.4% | falling |
| 91 | Cape Verde | 1.59 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 5.3% | volatile |
| 92 | Kyrgyzstan | 1.59 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 2.3% | volatile |
| 93 | Maldives | 1.57 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 65.5% | volatile |
| 94 | Peru | 1.53 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 24.5% | falling |
| 95 | Viet Nam | 1.49 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 43.0% | volatile |
| 96 | Panama | 1.47 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 21.2% | falling |
| 97 | Mongolia | 1.46 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 33.1% | volatile |
| 98 | Morocco | 1.45 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 17.2% | falling |
| 99 | Thailand | 1.44 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 22.2% | falling |
| 100 | Israel | 1.43 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 26.9% | falling |
| 101 | Djibouti | 1.41 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 26.6% | volatile |
| 102 | Philippines | 1.4 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 58.1% | falling |
| 103 | Iran, Islamic Republic of | 1.39 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 33.6% | falling |
| 104 | Ireland | 1.39 % change on previous year | 2025 | up 24.1% | volatile |
| 105 | Saint Barthelemy | 1.39 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 8.5% | volatile |
| 106 | Colombia | 1.36 % change on previous year | 2025 | up 43.7% | falling |
| 107 | South Africa | 1.35 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 37.1% | falling |
| 108 | Sint Maarten (Dutch part) | 1.32 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 39.4% | volatile |
| 109 | Sri Lanka | 1.29 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 29.4% | volatile |
| 110 | Iceland | 1.28 % change on previous year | 2025 | up 9.4% | volatile |
| 111 | Fiji | 1.27 % change on previous year | 2025 | up 14.4% | volatile |
| 112 | Andorra | 1.25 % change on previous year | 2025 | up 158.3% | volatile |
| 113 | New Caledonia | 1.25 % change on previous year | 2025 | up 64.9% | volatile |
| 114 | Mexico | 1.19 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 12.3% | falling |
| 115 | Canada | 1.18 % change on previous year | 2025 | up 22.5% | volatile |
| 116 | Luxembourg | 1.15 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 61.6% | rising |
| 117 | Norway | 1.12 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 37.7% | volatile |
| 118 | Australia | 1.11 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 33.7% | falling |
| 119 | Malta | 1.1 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 54.9% | volatile |
| 120 | Ecuador | 1.1 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 26.8% | falling |
| 121 | Myanmar | 1.09 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 5.2% | volatile |
| 122 | Libya | 1.08 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 22.7% | volatile |
| 123 | Tunisia | 1.07 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 19.0% | falling |
| 124 | Niue | 1.07 % change on previous year | 2025 | up 137.2% | volatile |
| 125 | El Salvador | 1.04 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 29.4% | falling |
| 126 | Lebanon | 1.03 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 53.3% | volatile |
| 127 | Vatican | 1.01 % change on previous year | 2025 | up 158.7% | volatile |
| 128 | Costa Rica | 0.976 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 45.5% | falling |
| 129 | Netherlands | 0.9625 % change on previous year | 2025 | up 1.4% | falling |
| 130 | Dominican Republic | 0.9601 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 11.1% | volatile |
| 131 | Belize | 0.9389 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 38.9% | falling |
| 132 | Cyprus | 0.9374 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 30.4% | volatile |
| 133 | Turks and Caicos Islands | 0.9322 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 80.4% | volatile |
| 134 | Brunei Darussalam | 0.9314 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 20.0% | volatile |
| 135 | Suriname | 0.8918 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 12.8% | volatile |
| 136 | Anguilla | 0.8905 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 74.6% | volatile |
| 137 | Switzerland | 0.8217 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 64.5% | falling |
| 138 | New Zealand | 0.8009 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 49.6% | volatile |
| 139 | Korea, Democratic People's Republic of | 0.7919 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 8.7% | volatile |
| 140 | Guam | 0.7785 % change on previous year | 2025 | up 322.0% | volatile |
| 141 | Jamaica | 0.7656 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 17.2% | volatile |
| 142 | Sweden | 0.7188 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 51.6% | volatile |
| 143 | Brazil | 0.7052 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 36.0% | volatile |
| 144 | Azerbaijan | 0.7001 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 68.7% | volatile |
| 145 | United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland | 0.695 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 32.4% | volatile |
| 146 | Chile | 0.6868 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 42.9% | falling |
| 147 | Singapore | 0.6577 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 46.8% | volatile |
| 148 | Naoero | 0.6529 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 66.9% | volatile |
| 149 | Guyana | 0.6412 % change on previous year | 2025 | up 4.5% | volatile |
| 150 | United States of America | 0.62 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 28.3% | falling |
| 151 | Samoa | 0.6103 % change on previous year | 2025 | up 32.2% | volatile |
| 152 | Denmark | 0.5894 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 22.1% | volatile |
| 153 | Micronesia, Federated States of | 0.5726 % change on previous year | 2025 | up 73.7% | volatile |
| 154 | Saint Kitts and Nevis | 0.4948 % change on previous year | 2025 | up 635.0% | volatile |
| 155 | Finland | 0.4591 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 41.1% | volatile |
| 156 | Liechtenstein | 0.4571 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 41.1% | volatile |
| 157 | China | 0.4516 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 86.9% | volatile |
| 158 | Bahamas | 0.4434 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 38.6% | volatile |
| 159 | Réunion | 0.4411 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 38.3% | volatile |
| 160 | Venezuela, Bolivarian Republic of | 0.4325 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 60.7% | volatile |
| 161 | Argentina | 0.424 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 63.4% | falling |
| 162 | Türkiye | 0.4098 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 94.1% | volatile |
| 163 | Grenada | 0.3776 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 32.8% | volatile |
| 164 | Slovenia | 0.3403 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 93.6% | volatile |
| 165 | Barbados | 0.3241 % change on previous year | 2025 | up 36.3% | volatile |
| 166 | Bosnia and Herzegovina | 0.3201 % change on previous year | 2025 | up 185.1% | volatile |
| 167 | Falkland Islands, Malvinas | 0.3132 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 85.8% | volatile |
| 168 | French Polynesia | 0.2972 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 52.4% | volatile |
| 169 | Austria | 0.2794 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 79.1% | volatile |
| 170 | Macau, China | 0.2423 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 87.5% | volatile |
| 171 | Trinidad and Tobago | 0.2395 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 57.8% | volatile |
| 172 | Belgium | 0.2382 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 72.2% | falling |
| 173 | Antigua and Barbuda | 0.2295 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 37.0% | volatile |
| 174 | Nepal | 0.2288 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 80.1% | volatile |
| 175 | Saint Lucia | 0.2228 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 94.0% | volatile |
| 176 | France | 0.2109 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 75.9% | volatile |
| 177 | Spain | 0.2058 % change on previous year | 2025 | up 155.3% | volatile |
| 178 | Portugal | 0.1431 % change on previous year | 2025 | up 141.1% | volatile |
| 179 | Georgia | 0.1359 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 77.0% | volatile |
| 180 | Guernsey | 0.1196 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 63.9% | volatile |
| 181 | Greenland | 0.1176 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 26.0% | volatile |
| 182 | Dominica | 0.0939 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 84.2% | volatile |
| 183 | Curaçao | 0.0472 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 95.2% | volatile |
| 184 | North Macedonia | 0.0132 % change on previous year | 2025 | up 103.1% | volatile |
| 185 | Aruba | 0.0063 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 98.6% | volatile |
| 186 | San Marino | 0.0049 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 99.1% | volatile |
| 187 | Uruguay | 0.0019 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 99.6% | volatile |
| 188 | Jordan | -0.0009 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 100.0% | falling |
| 189 | Jersey | -0.049 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 106.1% | volatile |
| 190 | Palau | -0.087 % change on previous year | 2025 | up 26.8% | volatile |
| 191 | Korea | -0.0908 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 111.8% | volatile |
| 192 | Isle of Man | -0.1027 % change on previous year | 2025 | up 68.4% | volatile |
| 193 | Puerto Rico | -0.1217 % change on previous year | 2025 | up 89.9% | volatile |
| 194 | Bermuda | -0.1269 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 24.0% | volatile |
| 195 | Hungary | -0.168 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 1,439.1% | volatile |
| 196 | Mauritius | -0.1742 % change on previous year | 2025 | up 36.7% | volatile |
| 197 | Albania | -0.1744 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 129.1% | volatile |
| 198 | Croatia | -0.1857 % change on previous year | 2025 | up 70.5% | volatile |
| 199 | Italy | -0.2225 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 113.0% | volatile |
| 200 | Belarus | -0.2264 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 142.8% | volatile |
| 201 | Hong Kong, China | -0.2539 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 139.6% | volatile |
| 202 | Serbia | -0.2944 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 13.8% | volatile |
| 203 | Cuba | -0.3096 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 406.6% | volatile |
| 204 | Guadeloupe | -0.334 % change on previous year | 2025 | up 59.1% | volatile |
| 205 | Bulgaria | -0.339 % change on previous year | 2025 | up 44.5% | volatile |
| 206 | Russian Federation | -0.3843 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 196.7% | volatile |
| 207 | Tonga | -0.3903 % change on previous year | 2025 | up 57.0% | volatile |
| 208 | Japan | -0.4058 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 604.7% | volatile |
| 209 | Saint Vincent and the Grenadines | -0.4131 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 56.3% | volatile |
| 210 | Chinese Taipei | -0.4176 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 237.7% | volatile |
| 211 | Germany | -0.4223 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 141.6% | volatile |
| 212 | Tuvalu | -0.498 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 157.8% | volatile |
| 213 | Armenia | -0.5447 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 788.1% | volatile |
| 214 | Romania | -0.5494 % change on previous year | 2025 | up 22.3% | volatile |
| 215 | Slovakia | -0.5749 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 276.1% | volatile |
| 216 | Lithuania | -0.6489 % change on previous year | 2025 | up 21.0% | volatile |
| 217 | Montserrat | -0.6835 % change on previous year | 2025 | up 68.4% | volatile |
| 218 | Monaco | -0.7507 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 143.1% | volatile |
| 219 | Martinique | -0.7521 % change on previous year | 2025 | up 14.0% | volatile |
| 220 | Latvia | -0.7629 % change on previous year | 2025 | up 1.7% | volatile |
| 221 | Republic of Moldova | -0.7875 % change on previous year | 2025 | up 47.5% | volatile |
| 222 | Greece | -0.7992 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 100.7% | volatile |
| 223 | Montenegro | -0.8003 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 118.8% | volatile |
| 224 | United States Virgin Islands | -0.8438 % change on previous year | 2025 | up 49.0% | volatile |
| 225 | Poland | -0.8441 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 433.4% | volatile |
| 226 | Saint Pierre and Miquelon | -0.9065 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 290.5% | volatile |
| 227 | Saint Helena | -0.9105 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 480.3% | volatile |
| 228 | Czechia | -1.07 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 6,085.0% | volatile |
| 229 | Estonia | -1.17 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 463.4% | volatile |
| 230 | Northern Mariana Islands | -1.56 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 30.5% | volatile |
| 231 | American Samoa | -2.1 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 37.7% | volatile |
| 232 | Marshall Islands | -2.91 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 95.6% | volatile |
| 233 | Cook Islands | -3.06 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 1,385.0% | volatile |
| 234 | Saint Martin (French Part) | -4.55 % change on previous year | 2025 | down 2,003.9% | volatile |
Regions and income groups
Aggregates are excluded from the country ranking above so that a region can never outrank a country.
- (UN M49) 0.6697 % change on previous year
How this figure is calculated
The year-on-year percentage change in Number of people living in urban and rural areas. Computed from consecutive annual observations; years either side of a gap are skipped rather than bridged.
Computed from
- Number of people living in urban and rural areas United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2025) – with minor processing by Our World in Data
Statizoid computes this series; the underlying measurements belong to the publishers named above. The arithmetic is applied to every country and year where both inputs report, and nothing is estimated unless the page says so.
About this data
The year-on-year percentage change in Number of people living in urban and rural areas. Computed from consecutive annual observations; years either side of a gap are skipped rather than bridged.